how to minimize/stop the erosion in high alumina bottom pouring sets, without much cost increase.

One can try magnesia - carbon refractory coating over the high alumina bottom pouring sets. The coating can be applied using carbonaceous adhesives.

Using BP set manufactured by small companies then probable cause of this erosion can be lower alumina content than specified or using a low melting clay as binder to reduce firing temperature. Total alumina can be checked by sending sample to any reputed lab for chemical testing. However for checking low melting matrix, you have to test hot MOR or RUL property of the sample. In case of low melting matrix, it will fuse at steel temperature and will not hold the grains, so more erosion. So buy only from manufacturers who have high temperature kilns to make fire proper grade of BP sets.

 Reduced oxygen content in the steel will be better for the refractories. I recall a case where the customer "killed" the steel in the ladle with some aluminum prior to casting. It is costly to measure oxygen but will give good information if you can do this.

what's the difference between fused zirconia and chemical grade zirconia,

The term fused zirconia refers to the zirconia grains which are melted by heating above their melting point therefore the surface of these grains is in a fused state and it is nearly theoretically dense. One would expect better thermo mechanical properties from fused grains. Where as chemical grade is generally refered to zirconia prepared by chemical precipitation or decomposition of zirconium salts and such grains show high surface porosity hence they are prone to liquid metal wetting.


 Refractoriness is all about purity. A fused grade will contain fewer of the glass forming impurities which reduce the refractoriness of high melting point materials like zirconia. Hence you will have cleaner grain boundaries less prone to chemical attack, high temperature creep etc. In extreme applications, go for fused grade every time. Of course there are grades of fused materials as well, so you have to go by the quantities and types of impurities present in the chemical analysis to be sure that you're getting a quality product.


Price wise:
It can expected the fused grade to be more expensive. But there are different grades of fused zirconia, as with any other fused material. The fused material obtained from the centre of the melted mass is expected to contain the least contaminants and companies will often sell this material at the highest price whilst sell the material obtained from the outside of the melt at a lower price.
Whether it's better depends upon what use of it and how essential the place it is. That is, it could be cost effective to use the lower grade of zirconia in certain applications. Usually any containment vessel is zoned and the highest grade, fused materials only used in the high wear areas.


Crystal Size :
Cristal size is a major difference. Fused ZrO2 is slowly cooled, thus allowing for better formed and larger crystals than chemical ZrO2.


Lattice Size: 
There can not be major difference in the lattice parameters of the fused and chemical grade calcined zirconia but it may vary by from 5to 6% because the chemical grade is expected to have high vacancy or interstitial concentration hence it may show larger lattice parameter.Since in the fused zirconia the imputities are segregated to the surface of grains during solidification therefore it show lattice corresponding to that of pure zirconia crystal.

how Manganese cause Magcarbon refractory erosion?

1) Rich MnO slags can lead to Mn-rich metallic particles and solid solution with Mg (and, indeed, carbon oxydation) at the interface between slag and lining. 
Anyway, this is seldom the first cause of erosion: it generally occurs after the lining has been weared for some other reason (i.e. slags unsaturated in MgO or rich in FeO).


2) Mn presence in converter causes erosion faster, as it behaves acidic, makes the liquid less viscous, penetrates the pores and joints and reacts with MgO at the contact point. For Mn steel, different of configuration of MgC brick is used.


3) it is observed that after a low grade ore(high impurity i.e Mn,Si) converter life is almost reduced and high erosion profile is being observed. 
as my observation high Mn slag is very fluid and do not cover the converter lining after slag splashing. reducing use of iron ore as coolant may help.


MnO + SiO2 = very low melting and corrosive liquid. 

I suppose primary wear area limiiting converter life will be the trunnions. Trunnions can be zoned with higher quality MgO containing bricks - MgO purity should be 97.5 minimum and of largest MgO crystal size available. Graphite should be 10-20% and have coarse flaked quality -- exact amount of graphite is function of sracp charge; hot metal chemistry; gunning practice; slag viscosity etc. A good start would be 15% C. Metal additions should be aluminum and silicon metal which will form carbides for added strength and corrosion resistance. 

Turkish fused MgO is superior to Chinese fused MgO especially for corrision resistance - crystal size is larger and grain chemistry is more homogeneous. 

Some other thoughts: 

The operator should be adding enough lime/limestone/dolomitic lime to maintain slag basciity at a > 3:1 lime:silca ratio and some MgO is helpful to reduce slag liquidity and reactability. 

Reblows will be especialy harmful as added FeO can result and FeO+MnO+SiO2 is a refractory solvent that is very aggressive. So effort should be taken to control reblowing to minimum. 

Overblowing such that temperature is overheated should be controlled. 

Corriosive slag should be slagged off shortly after tap. 

A high purity MgO gun mix and laser readings to identify low spots for added gunning maintenance will extend service life. 

Do practice slag splashing; a special lance is used to inject nitrogen after tap - the slag is made more refractory prior to the nitrogen splasing by addition of dolomitic lime. 

A good strategy would be to plan for Continuous Improvement over several linings rather than thinking that one design change can be a silver bullet. Key is to study the wear profile, identify the wear mechanism and develop new lining design that addresses the wear area and wear meachanism; this should be repeated in several iterations over several linings as in "chaisng the hole". As one area is upgraded the weak link might move to another area of the vessel. EX: An upgrade of trunnions might shift the limiting zone to the cone or the slagline or the charge pad or the tap pad...

Benefits of using Steel Fibers and Organic Fibers in Refractory Castables and Monolithics

One of the most effective ways of improving the mechanical and thermal properties of refractory castables and other monolithic refractories is adding in suitable proportions of stainless steel fibers and organic fibers to the castable respectively.

Steel Fibers

Steel fiber reinforced refractory castables are very resistant to the tendency of the material to fall apart on thermal cycling. Stainless steel fibers greatly improve the flexural strength of the castable. And this added increase in ductility contributes significantly to the thermal shock and spalling resistance of the material. The fibers generally used are in size varying between 0.1 to 0.4 mm2 in cross-section & 20-40 mm in length. For monolithic SS is used either high chrome or high chrome nickel steels available in the market with different grades. One reason commonly reported that the thermal shock resistance of castables is greatly increased through addition of SS fibers because these fibers act as crack arresters, preventing cracks propagating. This is also possible that the microcracks caused by a mismatch in thermal expansion coefficients of matrix and fibers dissipate energy from larger cracks propagating as a result of thermal stress. However percentage of these fibers added becomes important because of two reasons as it has a direct impact on the fluidity of the castable, then it may also cause mixing difficult due to fiber-balling when added beyond 3% by volume. Another critical factor will be the maximum application temperature for the castable that those fibers present in the castable can resist oxidation (since these fibers can not perform beyond their melting temperature).

Organic Fibers

An effective means for improving the explosive spalling resistance of a castable is to add organic fibers to the formulation. It has been reported that the composition & concentration of fibers are not as important as melting temperature of the fiber, since these fibers after melting increase permeability at certain temp. & thereby reducing the explosive spalling tendency of the castables. The fibers generally used for this purpose are Polypropylene fibers, Polyester staple fibers, etc.
Because of these different advantages it have been found that both organic and SS fiber reinforced refractory castables provide substantial increase in service life and therefore, a considerable reduction in refractory maintenance cost and furnace down-time.

Refractory anchoring systems

 How important are anchoring systems on your refractory linings? 
- How does your company engineers this systems? 
- Can you trust on your suppliers for technical advice? Wich alloy suits best your lining, your equipment, etc.
- Is anchoring systems a matter of price, do you look at it as a commodity?


the anchor system is critical to the success of the Furnace Lining. 

Indeed, you get what you pay for but anchoring will be a fraction of your build spend so to 'pinch pennies' in this area is a false economy, resulting in premature failure perhaps. 

Key points which determine the engineering of you anchor system: 

* Lining thickness & construction - What material(s) are you retaining? 
* Operating Conditions - Temperature, thermal cycling, atmosphere, mechanical stress 
* Plane of Refractory - Roof, wall, bull-nose? 
* Openings within the refractory body - flue opening 

This determines the type of anchor (material) & quality (grade) you should be expecting to use. 

I would suggest that the anchoring design is based on experience and good practice. 


Additional to what has been said already. Your total lining needs to be designed for its purpose. Thermal expansion can destroy a lining regardless of the anchors system while it may appear to be anchor failure. Consideration of refractory load on any give area is also a consideration for anchoring design. If the vertical load is not transferred back to the shell with shelf supports, you may see failures that look like and anchor failure, when reality is improper anchor application. Shelf supports are also used to isolate areas which may be exposed to thermal expansion from two walls. Bull noses and corner are examples that one would isolate. 

It is difficult to find installation companies that will offer anchor design because they do not want to be exposed to any liability. Some do. 

We have improved the performance of one of our client calciners to operate continuously for 3-4 years. Improved from have outages every 6 months. A huge factor in the improved performance was changing the anchor design.


 a change from standard 310s to 253MA in many industries. This could be for several reasons. Having worked at Rolled Alloys and knowing the differences between each alloy I think one needs to have a good understanding of metals and their behaviour and to know when and where to apply which alloy. One furnace is not the same as another. I have seen anchor failures in 253MA and 310s in similar applications but all for very different reasons that the applicator thought they would survive. I don't always understand why suddenly an alloy is 'in' but it could well be because of lack of understanding of the alloy or just 'everybody is going that way' or some sort of hype, so "lets follow". My experience is that the life time of an alloy actually depends on the alloy chemistry AND the condition in which it is furnished. Both play about a 50-50 part as opposed to just the chemistry. Alloy content determines strength as well as the corrosion resistance of the elements it is endowed with but the surface tension determines the rate at which corrosion takes place. A rough surface will be more susceptible to attack than a smooth surface and a black solution annealed surface wll be attacked/corroded faster than a bright annealed surface. Bright Solution Annealing od a cold drawn or rolled surface is usually the way to go. What people also forget is that each alloy needs to be solution annealed at different temperatures for different lengths of time. If the recepie for all the above is not correct one will not have the full benefit out of any alloy and remain in the dark as to why it worked one time and not the next. One usually forgets he paid the cheapest supplier to get him something he thought was the same as anothers. 

There is also lot of misunderstanding about Sigma forming in stainless steel alloys and very little written about it. I have seen write ups and theories that are totally incorrect and others usually prior to 1970 that would be closer to the truth. One such belief is that 253MA is immune to Sigma formation. This is not true. I have seen annealing bells crack like glass in cold swedish winters after only months of service. Immunity to Sigma is only offered by sufficient Nickel or Cobalt content. There are a few other elements but due to the commercial nature of these alloys it is usually shyed away. I think the industry may reconsider 253MA as an anchoring alloy unless it is used for the purpose for which it was designed. This was to offer better sulphadation and oxidation resistance against 310 and 310s. Not to offer better sigma formation resistance as many believe with such certainty. It would be a great alloy for incinerators and SO2 containing gasses. One must consiously know one has selected the right alloy. If one has not, that will be the time it bites back at him.


When deciding which alloy to go for, it is absolutely critical to know the how each alloy will behave under the various conditions it is exposed to. It not just a matter of price. We have noticed that certain markets prefer to use Grade 304 because it is cheaper yet most don't realise that is grade is not suitable for excessive temperature exposure or aggressive corroding atmosphere therefore increasing their maintenance and labor cost in the long run. 


 the Sigma phase formation and susceptibility as well as the lack of sufficient publications to support the arguments. 253MA is not immune but it is less susceptible than 310. Incoloy DS and Inconel 601 are better alternative but at premium price due to the higher Ni content. 
Special alloys such as Haynes 160 and 120 can offer even better solutions however they do come at relatively higher prices. 

As far as I know, using traditional V-anchors really can do a good job if you don't need a lifespan of more than a year in very harsh conditions. If one wants a long life time and the temperature is too high for anchors to survive (in my opinion above furnace temp of 1200 degrees C or more), then one should consider ceramic anchor systems. If the chemicals are the problem, then one can look at exotic anchor materials. Another solution is changing the geometry and make a self load bearing brick solution.
Another aspect that goes wrong many times, in my opinion, is the amount of used anchors. Rule of thumb for me is the anchor distance should be the same as the lining thickness with anchor length being 2 cm shorter than the lining thickness.
Sigma phase cannot be tackled other than assuring the anchor is either not susceptible to that or not used in the wrong temperature range or replaced before the anchor went too many time through the sigma phase related temperature.

the anchoring system you choose will determine the life of the monolithic lining. You must also take care about anchoring if you are gunniting, or shotcreting, as long as ceramic anchors do not retain the gunned material as well as V-shaped metallic anchors. Generally, the V-shaped corrugated free-moving system is a very good option, provided your welders will not close the movable parts with a strong weld seam. 
You should also take care about the environment in which you are installing the monolithic linings. At temperatures below 600-700 °C, I don't see a mechanical problem in installing 310S or 310, but at higher temperatures you should really consider a better alloy, such as Inconel, or 253MA. From the discussion, I believe your major concern are cement kilns. In this case, you should check if there is sulfate or chlorine gas attack in the anchor. Against chlorine very little can be done, thus I recommend a mix of ceramic and metallic anchors (guarantee the clips are of 310S or superior quality and that the anchors do not have their movement restricted. Good wedging is essential!). In this case, you may also consider the change from the V-Shaped anchors to the flat bar concept. I agree 100% that this concept is old-fashioned and lead to higher stresses in the lining, but if an expansion joint is carefully prepared, you have a much larger corrosion area. This concept should be tried if corrosion of the V-shaped 10 or 12 mm anchors is excessive. 
For sulfate, the information from Wouter Garot is perfect. You should avoid nickel in the alloy, thus 253MA is far better than 310 or supperalloys. 
Anyway, wherever corrosion is an issue, the mix of ceramic and metallic anchors is geneally advantageous. 

Functions and Importance of Tundish in Continuous Casting - I

The role of tundish in the continuous casting process evolved from that of a buffer between the ladle and mould to being a grade separator and also a device for removing unwanted inclusions through metallurgical processes / chemical reactions. The tundish is intended to deliver the molten metal to the moulds evenly and at a designed throughput rate and temperature without causing contamination by inclusions. It distributes molten steel in continuous casting moulds and is typically operated at a constant bath depth to ensure a constant feed rate into the mould required to achieve a constant throughput. In the sequence of continuous casting, tundish directly control the molten steel in the last stage of liquid steel processing and the refractories used here are therefore, required to have high stability and special properties. Tundish is one of the most important areas of Refractory Application and so, is also one of the biggest ‘cost control center’ in the continuous casting process.

Tundish Refractory Lining


After Bricked Lining and then Gunnable Lining, Tundish Boards (or Board Lining) came into existence as working lining. Silica boards are used for MS grade and MgO boards for SS grade and for high Ca ppm steel. The reason being silica is attacked by lime, alumina and iron oxide present in the steel.


However, for longer duration casting Sprayable Lining such as MgO spray mass (Magnesite spray mass) are widely used with MgO content varying from 70 - 90% and minimum silica content. For example, for 10-12 hrs casting, 70-75% MgO with silica content below 15% are working well. But to achieve 20-25 hrs life, 90% MgO with silica content less than 10% with 35-40 mm thickness at wall and 50-60 mm thickness at the bottom are required. Separate preheating arrangement is required to form the chemical bonding in spray mass after application at around 1000°C.


Of late, tundish spray mass has gradually been replaced by Dry Vibro mass to further elongate the casting sequence. MgO content varies from 70-90% with low silica content to achieve a sequence length of 12-15 hrs to 35-40 hrs. One advantage of Dry Vibro mass is that it ensures low hydrogen pick up in steel as it does not require water for application. Approximately 0.7-0.9 ppm hydrogen pick up is reported as compared to 1.8-2.4 ppm in spray mass. Special drying arrangement is required for drying this mass at around 300°C for 24 hrs to develop polymerisation of resin which gives strength to it.

Ladle Slide Gate

 refractory slide gate plates used, in pair, as a valve at the bottom of the ladle in order to control molten metal flow during casting. Highly sliding surfaces of these plates are necessary for easily opening and closing operation as they slides on each other. 
My question is whether these refractory plates required tar impregnation treatment, because i found this treatment in most of the articles regarding refractory slide gate plates, or it also not necessary require tar impregnation likewise magnesia carbon bricks and can be use directly after curing.


 There are mainly four types of commonly used slide gate plates.These are:

1) Cured Alumina carbon plates
2) Fired alumina carbon plates
3) Cured magnesia carbon plates
4) Fired magnesia carbon plates

Fired plates have better erosion resistance as well as better mechanical properties at high temperature.

Cured plates give 1 heat life and after polishing/coating the plate by repair may give one more extra heat life.

Fired plates can give around 4-6 heats life.

There are also zirconia based plates which are very expensive and used by reputed steel plants who targets to achieve 8-10 heats per pair of plates.

Magnesia based plates are preferable where slag corrosion rate is very high.

Tar impregnation is effective on fired products.After firing,the plates can have a porosity of about 13-14%.After tar impregnation,the porosity is reduced to around 3 %.

Tar impregnation is not much effective on cured products,as cured products already show a porositiy of about 5 %.

Purpose of tar impregnation are to lower the porosity and increase the carbon content.This results in better thermal conductivity and oxidation resistance.In case of Alumina carbon plates,tar impregnation also protects the aluminium carbide from hydration.

So,I will say,although environmentally hazardous,tar impregnation is necessary for fired slide gate plates.

whether TAR IMPREGNATION is a necessary step in production of magnesia carbon bricks or it is an additional process in order to improves the quality of bricks and it may be avoided????

Magnesia carbon bricks which we normally use have black shiny appearance with slippery surface, leaving carbon on touch. 
Is it possible to get such appearance after curing only i.e. after holding at 250C or above, or after curing + pyrolysis , or we must need to go for impregnation step in order to have such an appearance of brick, ready for lining.


If we go through the history and evolution of Magnesia Carbon Bricks, we will find the first Mag Carbon bricks were made by tar impregnating the Burnt Magneia Bricks. But now a days Magnesia Carbon bricks are no more fired and made by mixing Graphite as the source of Carbon, DBM or Fused magnesite or combination and pressed at ghigh pressure after mixing with PF Resin. By this method higher % of C can be introduced at a lesser cost and with much faster cycle time.


Tar impregnation is some thing done after pressing and curing the resin bonded bricks. Its main purpose is to remove porosity created in the process of curing, and also an attempt to increase carbon content of the brick surface. 
By my concern is that, whether it is a necessary step or can avoided, if we don't have any setup to perform such treatment.


 For most applications where MgO-C brick are used it is not necessary and is actually an exception. Some companies have applied this type of brick in very high wear areas of BOF vessels (trunnion areas). After curing most MgO-C bricks have porosity values of 4-6% so the amount of tar that you can actually get into the brick is limited.


 With addition of graphite,solid resin,liquid resin and pitch powder in magnesia carbon bricks,we already achieve low porosity.Therefore tar impregnation is not necessary for magnesia carbon bricks.

Now a days, only magnesia carbon based EAF/EBT Taphole sleeves are tar impregnated for better performance.

Why does magnesia carbon brick chip out ? part -2

Perhaps we can go for more details about what the chipping out looks like.

Is every vertical and every horizontal joint being eroded?

Or are there cracks developing around the circumference of the ladle?

Or is the chipping out more prevelant in one area like in the stir quadrant?


our use of 97.5% purity fused MgO and 98% purity Fused MgO suggest best in class MgO.

Also key is the purity and crystal size of the graphite. A large coarse flake graphite of intermediate purity, not necessarily the highest purity available, should offer better oxidation resistance as the impurity in the flaked graphite is SiO2 and SIO2 will provide some protection against anti-oxidants.

The particle size and amounts of anti-oxidants will affect oxidation resistance; thermal expansion and hot strength. As your ladles seem to be going cold and empty for extended periods, I would expect some addition of Al and Si to help retard oxidation of the cabon.

Construction design can also affect joint erosion as the design affects stress distribution:

Spiral construction is quickest to install but worst for structural integrity. This is especially true for ladles with poor lip ring retainers.

MiniKeys that are keyed to cloe each ring will provide a more stable lining AND they can be run to a thinner wear profile for longer life versus semi universal construction as the semi u bricks lose structural integrity when they get beyind 50% or so of the original wear profile.

The best construction is in my opinion arch brick construction. Arches have the advantage that the greatest number of joints are in the vetical dimesnsion so hoop stresses are more uniformily distributed.

In the USA, there is a trend to lower purity 96.8% fused magnesia as a cost savings - the problem with this is that there is a resulting increase in SiO2 inthe bricks and the bricks are more prone to cracking. To combat vertical cracking that occurs about every 750mm to 1000mm around the circumference, some success has been achieved by increasing the graphite levels by 2-4%.

Vertical cracks were observed in middle of many bricks. 

However,in the current ladle,after all the steps we had taken,the over all metal zone is in very good condition except chip out in 1 or 2 pockets in the purging side. 

Yes,we had chosen best fused magnesia with C/S ratio 1.9-2. 

Natural flake graphite used was of -196 grade with about 88 % passing through the 100 mesh screen.Fixed carbon tested was about 96.20 %.So,from your suggestion,it seems,we should have used -192 or -194 grade graphite. 

I carefully note down your suggestion on anti-oxidant.We had used about 1.2 % Aluminium powder and 0.8 % Silicon metal powder in slag zone bricks as the plant makes Si : Al killed steel in the ratio of 70: 30 . 

No anti-oxidant was used in metal zone and bottom bricks. 

Yes,mini key bricks 7/8 and 7/30 are used in both metal and slag zone as per customer's requirement.However,our lining expert says that due to the condition of ladle shells,7/40 would have served better in place of 7/30. 


FM 96.8 with higher carbon content is very useful.I am thinking in this direction as many customers want to buy cheaper bricks and we need to find solution.Normally 8-10 and 12-14 % final carbon are retained in metal zone and slag zone bricks.So,for lower purity FM,what % of final C you wll recommend for bottom,metal zone and slag zone bricks ? 

I have one more question.What are the advantages of using +196/+195/+194( 80 % min retained on 100 mesh screen) graphite in place of -194/-195/-196(min 80% passes through 100 mesh) in magnesia carbon bricks? 
And what are the advantages of using +895 graphite in place of + 195 graphite.I mean how larger flake lengths help in magnesia carbon bricks.I am perplexed because now people are doing research and developing bricks by using Nano graphite(3 D graphite)particles. 

 Ladle insulation , Maximum continuity , control slag , using right taphole in EAF , minimize super heat before tapping , optimize treatment time between EAF and casting , and many others from steel making side are very important for ladle life.

Ladle Preheaters

The ladle refractory lining temperature, during the production cycle, especially for basic linings, must be constantly reset and maintained at convenient temperature values higher than 1.000°C-1.200°C. A correct management of ladle heating and temperature keeping, allows to improve the main steel making parameters:

* Low liquid steel temperture changings before and after tapping

* Tapping temperature decrease at E.A.F. (5-10°C)

* Consumption reduction of expensive energy (i.e. reduction electrical energy of the E.A.F.)

* Electrode consumption reduction of the E.A.F.

* Reduction of Tap to Tap time at E.A.F.

* Increase of E.A.F. productivity

* Guarantee of casting start in the C.C.M.

* Low ladle refractory lining consumption

* Increase of safety refractory lining performances

* Elimination of liquid steel infiltrations trough / behind the working lining

Ladle Preheaters Combustion Technology Should be :

* High efficiency gas – air burners

* High velocity and long flame burners

* Pulse firing burners or modulating burners

* Low NOx emissions of burners

* Burnes designed and manufactured with special refractory steel parts for long life time of operation

* Micro / PLC Automatic control of burners combustion ratio

* Automatic and efficient control of ladle temperature

* High preheating performances

* Extraordinary uniformity of ladle lining temperature

* Low gas consumption

* Shorter drying – preheating time

* Significant energy saving compared to usual technology

* High efficiency thermal recuperators (additonal energy saving 30%)

* Burners available for natural gas, L.P.G., Diesel oil, Coke oven gas

* Emission rates according to E.C.C. standards

* Exhaust fumes system and post-combustion system for dangerous and smoking emissions

SLITTING SYSTEMS

 Slitting process, as a rolling method, is used at rolling mills for increasing the efficiency and productivity, minimizing the number of passes, the machinery and equipment requirements and minimizing the costs.

   At conventional rolling mills, a billet is rolled through several stands and a single final product is rolled from each billet. But, in slitting process, by means of special roll pass designs and special guiding equipment, while the billet is rolled, it is slitted to two, three or four parts also. Especially for fine products, the slitting method easily doubles or quadruples the production capacity without increasing the rolling speed.

   SMM achieved very demanding results with the very successful double, triple and quadruple slitting applications, resulting with increased production capacity and reduced power consumption.

Crude steel production (million tonnes):

Crude steel production (million tonnes):

Rank	Country/Region	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011
—	World	1,351.3	1326.5	1,219.7	1,413.6	1,490.1
1	People's Republic of China	494.9	500.3	573.6	626.7	683.3
2	Japan	120.2	118.7	87.5	109.6	107.6
3	United States	98.1	91.4	58.2	80.6	86.2
4	India	53.5	57.8	62.8	68.3	72.2
5	Russia	72.4	68.5	60.0	66.9	68.7
6	South Korea	51.5	53.6	48.6	58.5	68.5
7	Germany	48.6	45.8	32.7	43.8	44.3
8	Ukraine	42.8	37.3	29.9	33.6	35.3
9	Brazil	33.8	33.7	26.5	32.8	35.2
10	Turkey	25.8	26.8	25.3	29.0	34.1
11	Italy	31.6	30.6	19.7	25.8	28.7
12	Taiwan	20.9	19.9	15.7	19.6	22.7
13	Mexico	17.6	17.2	14.2	17.0	18.1
14	France	19.3	17.9	12.8	15.4	15.8
15	Spain	19.0	18.6	14.3	16.3	15.6
16	Canada	15.6	14.8	9.0	13.0	13.1
17	Iran	10.1	10.0	10.9	12.0	13.0
18	United Kingdom	14.3	13.5	10.1	9.7	9.5
19	Poland	10.6	9.7	7.2	8.0	8.8
20	Belgium	10.7	10.7	5.6	8.1	8.1
21	Austria	7.6	7.6	5.7	7.2	7.5
22	Netherlands	7.4	6.8	5.2	6.7	6.9
23	South Africa	9.1	8.3	7.5	8.5	6.7
24	Egypt	6.2	6.2	5.5	6.7	6.5
25	Australia	7.9	7.6	5.2	7.3	6.4
26	Argentina	5.4	5.5	4.0	5.1	5.7
27	Czech Republic	7.1	6.4	4.6	5.2	5.6
28	Saudi Arabia	4.6	4.7	4.7	5.0	5.3
29	Sweden	5.7	5.2	2.8	4.8	4.9
30	Kazakhstan	4.8	4.3	4.1	4.3	4.7
31	Slovakia	5.1	4.5	3.7	4.6	4.2
-	Malaysia	6.9	6.4	4.0	4.1	N/A
32	Finland	4.4	4.4	3.1	4.0	4.0
—	Others[4]	29.8 (est.)	28.3 (est.)	23.3 (est.)	25.6 (est.)